希伯來人
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在公元前二千年内，希伯来人定居在迦南。他们使用迦南人的语言，尽管他们的文化有别于本地迦南人的文化。这两种文化的区别是一个激辩中的问题。而且这个问题在宗教方面非常敏感。
[编辑] 語源希伯來人的名稱源自希伯(Eber)。根據《聖經‧舊約全書‧創世記》第十一章12~14節，希伯是挪亞的曾曾孫、閃的曾孫、亞法撒的孫子[1][2]。 [编辑] 起源《阿马尔纳信札》被成功解读后。若干学者急切地判定信札中谈到的“哈比鲁人”（Habiru）就是希伯来人。特别是信札中的“哈比鲁人”被称作游牧民、袭击者和歹徒。这与圣经旧约（约书亚纪）中，对受约书亚领导征服迦南的希伯来人的相关描述特别契合。 如此的结论被证明是草率的。随后的研究，结合了语言学的方法，并对其他古代文明的文献提到的“哈比鲁人”进行了考察。现在一般认为，“哈比鲁人”指的是一群集合起来的无国家的流亡者。他们形成了一种独特的文化，却不是一个入侵迦南的强大部落。 实际上，根据圣经旧约的描述来确定“哈比鲁人”是否等同于希伯来人也许是不科学的。圣经旧约描述的事件也许在历史上并不是真实的。“哈比鲁人”中大部分是胡里安人，他们没有出埃及的经历。 另一种理论认为，希伯来人就是古埃及文献中神秘的所谓喜克索斯人。喜克索斯人属于塞姆语族（闪米特人）。他们不断地移居埃及。最终武力夺取了衰落的法老的权力。喜克索斯人在几百年后被驱逐出埃及。与圣经旧约中的希伯来人寄居埃及的相关描述（比如寄居的时间）符合。 实际上，正是底比斯第十七王朝的雅赫摩斯一世（希伯来语中的“阿摩西斯”，即圣经旧约中的摩西），顺尼罗河而下收复孟斐斯，驱逐喜克索斯人。与圣经旧约的描述截然相反，雅赫摩斯是喜克索斯人的敌人，是他用武力将喜克索斯人逐出埃及。一个引人好奇的事实是埃及第十五王朝的六个喜克索斯人统治者中的第三位名叫雅各伯赫（Yaqob-her），与圣经旧约中的希伯来人的族长雅各（Jacob）相似。当然这可能是一个比较常用的名字。但仍然与圣经旧约形成了对比，也许最终我们会发现雅各不仅是希伯来人的族长，同时是埃及的法老。 在希伯来文化中保存了很多迦南和两河流域的文化因素。比如圣经旧约中挪亚方舟的故事与苏美尔人的Ziusudra/Utnapishtim故事。后者的故事中有方舟，神灵因为愤怒而释放大洪水，嫉妒的神Enlil（巴比伦语Enlil，迦南语El）以及反对他的智慧神Enki（巴比伦语Ea）。 文献资料显示希伯来人居住在村落，饲养牲畜。周期性地将牲畜移往更干燥的不适宜耕种的地区放牧。这种方式就被称为“季节性牲畜移动”。因此很多学者认定希伯来人不过是迦南人罢了，他们居住在迦南地条件艰苦的山区。长时间以来与其他迦南人隔绝，因此有了独特的发展道路，其中包括崇拜El神更甚于Hadad神。 以上的关于希伯来人起源的说法可能都部分地正确。也许真实情况是这样：有一群被隔绝的迦南人设法山区定居。山区在迦南地东部是主要地形。他们吸收了其他的迁徙群体诸如“哈比鲁人”。文化融合使他们获得了不同于以往的特性。后来，这个组合而成的部落与迦南人截然不同。他们移居埃及，成为了埃及文献中统治埃及的喜克索斯人。在他们被驱出埃及回到迦南地的时候，他们自认与迦南人无任何关系。正如他们已经迥异于他们的祖先。以上的理论各有其支持者和批评者，相互之间并不是绝对排斥的。 Hebrews (syns. Heberites, Eberites, Hebreians, descendants of biblical Patriarch Eber; עברים, Standard Hebrew ʿIvrim, Tiberian Hebrew ʿIḇrîm; also עבריים Standard Hebrew ʿIvriyyim, Tiberian Hebrew ʿIḇriyyîm) were who lived in the Levant (the area now forms the geographical region of Palestine, Sinai, and the costal portions of Syria), which was politically Canaan when they first arrived in the area. The Hebrews lived within this region in the 2nd millennium BCE and spoke a Canaanite dialect (see Hebrew languages), although their culture was distinct from the local canaanite culture. The extent of the distinction between the culture of the canaanites and the hebrews is a matter of great debate, touching as it does on strong religious sensibilities. [编辑] 起源When the Tell el-Amarna archives were translated, some scholars eagerly equated the Habiru, described within the text, with the Hebrews, in particular because they were said to be nomads, raiders, and outlaws, fitting well with the biblical description of the Hebrews under Joshua conquering canaan. Such religiously motivated conclusions proved to be hasty, and later study, taking into account linguistic research, and other ancient mention of the Habiru, it is now considered that the term Habiru described a group of stateless foreigners who had banded together, and formed a counter culture rather than an invading force. Indeed, should the Habiru be proven to be the same as the Hebrews, biblical events preceeding biblical conquest of Canaan by Joshua are probably not true, since the majority of the Habiru were Hurrian, and thus not having flew from Egypt. Other controversial theories hold that the Hebrews were the mysterious Hyksos, a semitic people, who gradually took migrated into Egypt, eventually taking power from the extremely weak pharoah by force, and subsequently being expelled after many years, matching up well with the biblical description of the Hebrews in Egypt. Indeed, it was Ahmose (in Hebrew A-moses), who was from Thebes, down the river from the seat of power – Memphis, who caused the Hyksos to leave, although in contrast to the bible, Ahmose was the enemy of the Hyksos and expelled them by force. A curious feature of the hyksos rulers over Egypt is that the third ruler (of six) is named Yaqob-her which is cognate with Jacob, the name of the biblical forefather of this period, although the name may just be a common one, and this would still be contrary to the bible, as it would denote Jacob as a ruler of Egypt as well as over the Hebrews. There are many Canaanite and Mesopotamian (via Amorite mythology) themes preserved in Hebrew culture, like the specific biblical version of the story of Noah which is similar to the Sumerian story of Ziusudra/Utnapishtim, the ark, and the deluge unleashed by the angry, jealous god Enlil (Babylonian Ellil, Canaanite El), who was thwarted by the wise god Enki (Babylonian Ea). Also, textual sources appear to indicate that Hebrews lived in villages and raised livestock, seasonally grazing them in drier areas which didn't farm well, a form of subsistence known as transhumance. Consequently many have drawn the conclusion that the Hebrews were merely Canaanites who lived in the more difficult mountanous areas of Canaan, over time becoming separated from other Canaanites, and thus taking separate paths, including favouring El over Hadad. It is possible for all three of these potentials to be partially true – had a group of Canaanites separated and tried to live in the hills, which were mainly to the eastern side of Canaan, they could have absorbed other migrating groups, such as the Habiru, gaining a differing identity in consequence of the merging of cultures. Subsequently, the combined group, now distinct the Canaanites who remained, could have migrated to Egypt, becoming the Hyksos, and upon their return no longer viewing the Canaanites as related, as they no longer resembled themselves. Thus although each theory has its supporters and detractors, the groups are by no means mutually exclusive. [编辑] 十二支派术语“十二支派”（Tribes）指圣经旧约中族长雅各（后来改名“以色列”。有基于文本研究的假设认为，这个改名是一位旧约编辑者的尝试。）的后裔。希伯来人也被用来指称雅各的后裔。圣经旧约记载雅各有十一个儿子。土地就在他们之间分，除了约瑟，他的份由他的两个儿子分。利未的后代专职做祭司，不分土地。因此，圣经上希伯来人由十二支派（占有土地的十二个部落）组成。 当代的犹太人仅仅是十二支派中的少数几支的后裔。犹大支派、便雅悯支派和利未支派（专做祭司的支派，在犹大国和以色列国不拥有土地，与其他支派不同）的一部分，即原来南部犹大国的后代，被犹太人和很多基督徒视为当代犹太人的祖先。有人认为西缅支派也是当代犹太人的祖先，这是因为认为当时西缅支派已经完全被犹大支派所吸收。十二支派其余的那些支派属于北部以色列国，在北国以色列被亚述帝国征服后，被流放，这就是所谓的“以色列消失的十支派”。 某些基督教团体有时使用希伯来人这个术语来指称耶稣出生前的犹太人，与耶稣出生后的犹太人作区分。这种区分来源于基督教的观点，即犹太人在他们拒绝承认耶稣是救世主时，他们原有的上帝选民身份转移到基督徒身上。这种划分方法不为犹太人所接受。 以色列建国后，认为要团结流落到全世界所有本民族的人，所以他们采取了以色列为国名，而没有采用犹大作为国名，而且自称为希伯來民族，而不是犹太民族。但犹太人这个名词已经被世界各地广泛接受。 [编辑] TribesThe term refers to all the descendants that the bible alleges were had by a Patriarch Jacob (later renamed Israel, although the documentary hypothesis states that this renaming is an attempt by a redactor). Hebrews are also referred to as the Children of Israel for this reason. According to the bible, Jacob had 11 sons, and partitioned the land between them, except for Joseph, for whom the land was partitioned between his two sons, and thus, biblically, the Hebrews constitute Twelve Tribes. Today, modern-day Jews are descended from only a few of these Tribes. The Tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and parts of Levi (the priestly tribe – who in the period of the kingdoms of Judah and Israel had no land, unlike the other 11 tribes) are seen by Jewish people, and many Christians, as the ancestors of modern-day Jewish people. Some would say the Tribe of Simeon is included in this list, due to the view held by some that the Tribe of Simeon was absorbed into the Tribe of Judah. The remainder of the Twelve Tribes are said to have been exiled by the Assyrian Empire, and have become known as the Lost Tribes of Israel. Certain Christian groups sometimes use the term Hebrews to distinguish the Jews in ancient times that lived before the birth of Jesus from Jews that lived afterward. This distincion is part of the Christian doctrine that the favor bestowed upon the ancient Jews, as God's chosen people, was removed upon their rejection of Jesus as the messiah, and transferred to Christians. The distinction is not recognized by the Jews. [编辑] 注釋[编辑] 參見
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